why is raising carp more sustainable than salmon

The model then limited salmonid production to the fish oil available in trimmings, following the approach used for Scenario II in the Scottish salmon case study. These data were used to quantify the volume of fish required to produce the fish oil needed in Scottish salmon production in 2014 and to estimate the micronutrient retention of essential dietary micronutrients (i.e. Citation: Willer DF, Robinson JPW, Patterson GT, Luyckx K (2022) Maximising sustainable nutrient production from coupled fisheries-aquaculture systems. This was applied to the FAO global volume of wild-caught fish destined for FMFO [71], to estimate the additional volume of trimmings and by-products used for FMFO in 2016. The edible portion for farmed salmon was set at the maximum edible portion size reported in Fry et al. Let's take a look at why. Fish oil volumes for all other species were maintained at business-as-usual levels, such that total fish oil usage across all marine-fed products and fish oil for direct human supply was 641,000 t. The volume of whole wild-caught fish no longer required for salmonid production was then estimated assuming a fish oil yield of 4.8% [27]. In Scenarios III and IV, trimmings-only salmon is supplied alongside wild-caught fish and an equal portion of mussels (III) or carp (IV) (Fig 3). Credit: NOAA Sea Grant But our research paints a different picture. Furthermore if aquaculture demand for forage fish is reduced, there is uncertainty around whether rebound effects may increase or decrease the price of forage fish, impacting affordability for both consumers and feed producers. However, it warns farming can have a greater negative impact if it focuses on carnivorous fish such as eel and salmon, or on shrimps and prawns, which require more temperature control. In the face of climate change, sustainable seafood continues to adapt as best it can. Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom, Roles K.L. Visualization, Common carp is active in feeding when the water temperature is over 18-20 o C. Though common carp tolerates high water temperature (around 28-30 o C) the optimum temperature of growing is between 20 and 25 o C. During those periods when the water temperature is lower than about 15-16 o C feeding of common carp becomes less and less intensive. Consumers in the U.S., who had been advised to eat fish several times a week for the health benefits, were dismayed to learn that highly recommended farmed salmon was found to be tainted with mercury and PCBs. Using three alternative production scenarios we show that reducing marine feeds in salmon production and allocating wild-caught feed fish for human consumption could produce more nutritious seafood and leave 6682% of feed fish in the sea. Nutrient retention can also be impacted by dietary composition and the general health state of fish [29]. Scenarios are designed to identity trade-offs in nutrient production across seafood sectors, and do not consider economic and consumption factors. Conservation International says aquaculture has lower environmental impact than cattle, pig and poultry farming, Original reporting and incisive analysis, direct from the Guardian every morning, 2023 Guardian News & Media Limited or its affiliated companies. Aquaculture can provide a low-carbon, sustainable, affordable substitute for terrestrial meat sources, and demand is expected to continue to grow quickly [46]. Yet marine-fed species already require millions of tonnes of wild-caught fish for feed, over 90% of which are nutritious food-grade species. Mussel production already makes up a third of EU aquaculture [39] and worldwide mussel production was 2.1 Mt (live weight) in 2019 [1]. Investigation, There are however significant challenges to encouraging increased human consumption of forage fish. Writing review & editing, Affiliation Methodology, Growth in salmon production is therefore expected to increase pressure on wild-caught fish populations globally [7,8], particularly impacting tropical nations by removing an irreplaceable source of nutrients [7,18]. Currently, Atlantic salmon production uses 60% of global supplies of fish oil and 23% of fishmeal destined for aquaculture. Writing original draft, In Chile, bivalves represent an affordable food choice, with frozen meat available to consumers at around $1.40 kg-1 [41]. The future of wild salmon In the coastal United States, we clearly have our work cut out for us to bring salmon back to sustainable levels. There are however significant challenges in industry expansion. Increases in carp consumption in the UK and Europe are likely to be fuelled by overseas imports, and there is outstanding potential for the expansion of freshwater carp production worldwide [51], albeit with considerable hurdles regarding land and freshwater availability under climate change and disease constraints from intensification [51]. (Don't worry: We asked actual . Three different scenarios for fed aquaculture industry development are assessed, each enabling over 65% of wild-caught fish to remain in the sea while maintaining or increasing production of nutritious seafood. All micronutrient concentrations and data sources are indicated in S4 Table. Consumer uptake may however be limited, as in Europe carp is perceived as a relatively unappealing option, is bony and can have a sludgy aftertaste. J.P.W.R. Many of the concerns surrounding fish farming arise from the crowding together of thousands of fish in their artificial environment. Current approaches to marine-fed aquaculture could be further optimised for nutritious food production, if solutions are developed that continue to provide the high-quality nutritional benefits of fish and seafood to the human population, whilst also ensuring the aquaculture sector is able to maintain or increase its economic output. Reduction in fishing pressure on forage fish will therefore require coordinated fisheries governance across several regions where forage fish stocks are key contributors to aquafeeds [56]. Furthermore, evidence that plant-based feeds decrease the nutritional value of farmed fish [7,19] may disincentivize adoption of alternative feeds. Salmon represent an important source of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, and other key micronutrients to human diets. Some species spend their entire lives on the farm, while others are captured and raised to maturity there. The environmental effect of semi-intensive polycultural carp farming depends on the intensity of production, and on the water quality of recipients. Fish such as salmon naturally feed on smaller fish. For the first time in modern history, the world has been producing more farmed fish than. Eating seafood can reduce your carbon footprint, but some fish are better than others - Oceana. Mass production of microalgae which is thought to be approaching commercial stage is thought to have enormous potential for efficiency gains because it could replace fish feed and fish oil. 1. Fishmeal and fish oil are key components of fed aquaculture, comprising 76% and 71% of global resources used in aquafeeds, respectively [9]. We examine micronutrient flows (the transfer of micronutrients from feed to fish) in Scotlands farmed salmon industry, which is particularly reliant on marine feeds, to show that 149% of essential dietary minerals and fatty acids available in wild fish are retained in farmed salmon. Salmon production used 55,000 t of the fishmeal produced leaving 99,688 t spare. Finally, fishmeal usage by pigs was determined by the Eat Lancet recommendations to reduce pork production by 80% to improve environmental sustainability and human health [2]. Under business-as-usual conditions (based on 2016 data), 15 Mt of wild-caught fish were reduced to FMFO, and primarily used to grow salmonids (0.705 Mt fishmeal, 0.395 Mt fish oil), freshwater fishes (0.675 Mt fishmeal, 0.0860 Mt fish oil), crustaceans (0.951 Mt fishmeal, 0.04 Mt fish oil), and livestock (1.24 Mt fishmeal, pig and poultry) (Fig 5, S5 Table). In all scenarios the concentration of each micronutrient in a standard portion of seafood (140g) was measured, alongside the volume of wild-caught fish used and seafood produced. In this paper we demonstrate that marine-fed farmed salmon is an inefficient way to produce nutritious seafood, and that directing wild-caught feed fish towards human consumption could maximise nutrient production while also relieving pressure on fisheries stocks. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Poor demand at the consumer end is also a major issue, with fish such as sardines, herring and anchovies often cited as having poorer taste and appeal than species like salmon or tuna [32,36]. Feeding behaviour. Experts in aquatic resources explore why governments, funders, and scientists should invest in freshwater fish farms as a sustainable alternative to ocean farming. The large fish listed below are just six examples of popular fish that are both depleted and, in many cases, carry higher levels of mercury and PCBs. Fishmeal used by commercially fed carp was increased by 300% relative to business-as-usual, and reduced for salmonids (20%), pigs (20%) and crustaceans (60%) (S7 Table). This is based upon the principle that the most nutritionally valuable output of salmon farming is omega-3 fatty acids and several other micronutrients [1], and that fed fish aquaculture performs poorly from a protein retention and greenhouse gas emission perspective compared to unfed seafood or plant crops [25]. "Let's not give up on it yet," encourages Jennifer Witherspoon, California communications director for the Environmental Defense Fund. All scenarios are limited by the volume and composition of wild-caught fish used in 2014 Scottish salmon production, and thus represented alternative pathways of nutrient production in a coupled fisheries-aquaculture system. Full details on the micronutrient composition of the wild-fish species used in salmon feed, and the micronutrient composition of Scottish salmon, are provided in S4 Table. The atomised structure of the producer sector in the UK and Europe means that it is cheaper to import mussels from nations including Chile where production costs are lower, stifling domestic production and increasing environmental impacts in shipping [39]. The total amount of seafood available could increase, whilst leaving 6679% of wild fish uncaught. The inclusion of carp within seafood portions in Scenario IV provides further opportunity for nutritional benefits and less use of wild-caught fish. Farmed Atlantic salmon provide a rich source of protein and the omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), and DPA (docosapentaenoic acid) which are essential to neuro-development and highly cardioprotective [2]. Yet 90% of fishmeal and fish oil is derived from nutritious food-grade fish such as sardines and anchovies that could be fed directly to humans [10]. "Current trends indicate that the majority of the increase in global production will come from south and south-east Asia, with a continued drive by major producersuch as China and Vietnam towards export to Europea and north America.". When developing convenience products, it will be important to ensure that the nutritional merits of carp are not overwhelmed by undesirable filler ingredients, and that any other ingredients included are of a sustainable nature. [42]. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click 1 OF 6 Integrated Aquaculture More food, less pollution: Waste produced by caged fish seeps into surrounding water to nourish other farmed products. As different companies reported different taxonomic resolution or only common names, related species were grouped together (anchovy = four anchovy and anchoveta species, sardine = five sardine, sardinella and pilchard species, mackerel = five mackerel species). of smaller pelagic, or open-ocean, fish. In an article on bluefin tuna farming published in the San Francisco Chronicle, a seafood wholesaler estimated that it takes 26 pounds of feed to produce 1 pound of bluefin tuna; the feed consists of squid, blue mackerel, and sand eel. Points and uncertainty bars represent the mean, minimum and maximum contribution of each species based on FMFO composition data of two major FMFO producers over 20162019 (see Methods). Farmed fish production will have to more than double by 2050 to keep up with global demand, a report finds. "China, India and the rest of Asia with their growing middle classes are where we can expect demand for fish to rise most significantly," said co-author Mike Phillips, a senior scientist at WorldFish. Data were then compiled on the wild-caught fish species composition of FMFO used by Scotland salmon farms (S2 Table) [28,58,6062]. Carp require no fishmeal or fish oil, and can use cereal-based feeds [50]. Test your knowledge of this "hot" topic with this quiz. The collated data was then combined with the total volume of fish oil (878,000 t) and fishmeal (4.4 Mt) in 2016 to estimate the volume of wild-caught fish required to support these 11 FMFO end users (S5 Table). What Does "Sustainable Salmon" Mean? Growth in aquaculture is crucial to meet global animal-source food demands [13]. The report was co-written with the WorldFish Centre which advocates sustainable aquaculture as a response to the precipitous decline in word fish stocks. No, Is the Subject Area "Carps" applicable to this article? Panel (b) represents Scenario II applied on a global level, where farmed salmonid production is limited to FMFO from trimmings. Scenario I was then used as a baseline against which to compare alternative production scenarios. "Aquaculture is most likely to meet the growing demand for animal products with the least demand on ecosystems," said Sebastian Trong of Conservation International. Although data were not available on the areas or countries that provide wild-caught fish species for FMFO, this sustainability issue is addressed by maximising consumption of intensively managed and relatively local to the UK Atlantic fish species and minimizing consumption of tropical or subtropical species. All rights reserved. As we'll see in this article, our farmed salmon consumption can bring about a range of environmental and ethical concerns. Four production scenarios are presented in (a): I is farmed salmon fed on FMFO from wild-caught fish and trimmings (business-as-usual); II is salmon produced only from trimmings, with the spare edible wild-caught fish supplied directly to humans; III is trimmings-only salmon with equal portions of wild-caught fish and mussels; IV is trimmings-only salmon with equal portions of wild-caught fish and carp. This reduced fishmeal used by for crustaceans, which require high volumes of fishmeal per kg seafood produced [9]. Seafood is seen as promising for more sustainable diets. All three alternative scenarios use at least 66% less fishmeal than business-as-usual salmon. Funding acquisition, However, in the UK coastal space is limited and there are potential conflicts with other coastline users [39], while there are concerns about mussel food safety due to perceived contamination with microplastics, pathogens, or heavy metals. scenario I) we measure the total seafood produced, and the volume of wild-caught fish and fishmeal required to do this. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.g004. Both the mussel and carp scenarios provide 1020% lower levels of omega-3 than the business-as-usual salmon-only scenario, but provide twice the amount of vitamin A (mussels) or a 20% increase in vitamin D (carp). To Learn More The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Aquaculture Program This volume was reallocated among four species groups in proportions that would enhance total seafood production. the ratio of micronutrients in to micronutrients out) [14,21,24]. Roles Validation, Of the fish in FMFO, 67% was from wild-caught whole fish and the remaining 33% was from trimmings and by-products [27]. This trimmings-only salmon scenario reduced global fish oil usage by salmonids to 158,000 t, 40% of 2016, as globally 40% of fish oil was derived from trimmings [1]. Agencies worldwide have called for better management of fish farms, strict enforcement of regulations to protect consumers, more research on sustainable practices, and sharing of information on sound aquacultural practices. How would freshwater fish farming be effective from an economic perspective? In Europe the scenario is less positive, with the European production share falling from 10.9 to 1.9% over the past 30 years [50]. In sum, we have achieved successful, sustainable carp control by exploiting source-sink dynamics, and this, in turn, has enabled improvements in water quality and plant biodiversity throughout the entire watershed, especially where followed by alum treatmentthe effects of which have been sustainable. Explore the major threats to biodiversity. Panel (b) shows the proportion of these micronutrients from wild-caught fish included in feed that are retained in farmed salmon, based upon the mean volume of wild-caught fish in fish oil required to support Scottish salmon production in 2014. In Finland, approaches including ecolabelling and the development of new products such as boneless heat-to-eat pulled herring have been highly successful in increasing consumption of species that would otherwise go to FMFO [36]. Methodology, These values were compared with the total volume of micronutrients in farmed Scottish salmon in 2014 that were produced using food-grade wild-caught fish products; using the assumption that 33% of fish in FMFO is trimmings this is the volume of micronutrients in 66% of Scottish salmon production (119,945 t). Our case study used 2014 data to allow for sufficient information on FMFO composition, but dependence on marine feeds for salmon is decreasing, now at around 18% of total salmon feeds [34]. was funded by a Leverhulme Trust Early Career Fellowship. The fishmeal required for salmon production (Scenario I) was set to 2014 values (S1 Table), and the volume of fishmeal required to produce the carp was estimated from global production statistics [1]. In (b) the micronutrient concentration of Scenarios IIIV are shown relative to Scenario I (red dashed line). All subsequent analyses used the wild-caught fish volume estimate based upon the global average proportion of trimmings in wet fish (33% [27]). These values enabled calculation of a unitless proportion of micronutrients from wild-caught fish retained by farmed salmon (mnretained) using the formula below. No, Is the Subject Area "Salmon" applicable to this article? The following approach was used to develop new models to improve micronutrient retention and sustainability in aquaculture. Today aquaculture produces a wide variety of both freshwater and saltwater fin fish, crustaceans, and mollusks: farmed species include salmon, shrimp, catfish, carp, Arctic char, trout, tilapia, eels, tuna, crabs, crayfish, mussels, oysters, and aquatic plants such as seaweed. Scenario I (business-as-usual) is a production scenario of 100% Scottish salmon, using salmon production and our estimated wild-caught fish volumes for 2014, because for 2014 reliable data exist on FMFO usage in Scottish salmon production [26]. The authors say that for each kilogram of protein from beef, a cow needs to be fed the equivalent of 61kg of grain, for pork, a pig needs 38kg, but for fish it is just 13kg of grain. Validation, carp and mussels), can increase sustainable production of nutritious seafood. Impacts on nutrient availability for human diets, seafood production, and fisheries catches were examined. Overall, when applied on this global level, the trimmings-only salmon scenario used 2.87 Mt of fishmeal, 64% of the business-as-usual usage. Methodology, Retention rates depended on the relative nutrient content of feed fish species and farmed salmon, with nutrients high in feed species and low in salmon having low retention rates. Micronutrient concentrations per 100g were extracted for Atlantic salmon (smoked), all edible species used in farmed salmon production (seven wild-caught fish species [28]), alongside two common aquaculture species (blue mussel, Mytulis edulis; common carp, Cyprinus carpio). Waste products, including feces, uneaten food, and dead fish, are flushed (often untreated) into the surrounding waters where they add to the contamination of the water supply. Carp production has been rapidly expanding worldwide, growing 120% between 1997 and 2017 [34]. Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, United Kingdom, Roles Our study showed that meat of carp fed with experimental feed enriched with sustainable and natural feed ingredients can be a sensorily attractive source of nutritious ingredients in the human diet. News Aquaculture Supports a Sustainable Earth September 30, 2020 Responsible aquaculture fits the 17 Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations. Fish process energy more efficiently than mammals such as cows and pigs because they are cold-blooded (so less calories are needed for warming themselves) and live in water (so relatively. Salmon are reared in sea cages and fed on diets containing fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) derived from wild-caught fish and fish by-products, alongside other dietary components derived from plant crops such as soya. By reallocating the recommended 140 g portion of seafood to 39 g of trimmings-only salmon and 101 g of wild-caught fish, the omega-3 and mineral content of a standard seafood portion could improve substantially. "Salmon is an important part of our heritage." Sources: Over 3.7 Mt of wild-caught fish could remain unfished, 1.8 Mt less FMFO used, and total fed seafood production could increase by 39% to 21.9 Mt, providing benefits to both human nutrition and the marine environment. Globally, our results suggest that limiting the volume of wild-caught fish used to produce FMFO can help to relieve pressure on wild fish stocks while increasing supply of nutritious wild fish for human consumption. Sea lice are especially damaging to salmon, sometimes eating away the flesh of their heads down to the bone. Improving cold storage facilities on ships could allow entire catches of forage fish to be classed as food-grade and avoid high allocation of sub-standard fish towards feed [32]. We focus on Scotlands salmon industry, the third largest worldwide valued at over 1 billion [1] and the UKs largest food export by value [22], as a case study. Promoting human consumption of forage fish destined for feed is therefore possible using current wild-fish production levels, and delivers additional nutrient benefits. May 18, 2021. To improve the industry, they suggest greater monitoring, technological innovation and policy support. Feed family and friends year-round from a sustainable source by raising fish for food. Vitamin D is the only micronutrient with a high level of retention by farmed salmon, showing a 10% increase compared to the wild-caught fish, owing to relatively lower vitamin D concentrations in the species that dominated FMFO production (blue whiting, anchovy and sardine) (Fig 2B). Fish farmingaquaculturehas been practiced for hundreds of years, from Pre-Columbian fish traps in the Amazon basin to carp ponds on ancient Chinese farms. Yet with a large proportion of production70% in 2018 [1]reliant upon external sources of feed, further growth in fed aquaculture is unsustainable [7,8]. Continued reduction in marine dependency would improve nutrient efficiency, if wild-caught fish are directed for human consumption. In our view, governments, funders and scientists should focus on improving aquaculture on land to help meet the United Nation Sustainable Development Goals. Considering these conservation efforts, we felt it appropriate to offer some suggestions to help readers decrease their salmon consumption. Sustainability is the long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. Finally, the resulting global production volumes, alongside FMFO allocations, were visualised in Fig 5. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s001, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s002, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s003, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s004, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s005, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s006, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000005.s007. The past 50 years encompass nearly all of the major milestones in U.S. environmental legislation. smoked, canned).

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